Shelter

The golden rule when positioning a camp is "look up, look down". Look up into the tree for dead or broken branches that could fall on you during the night. Look down for the tell tale ripple patterns in leaf litter or soil, indicating common water channels in wet weather. Also don’t camp on old track ways as the compacted wheel ruts also form very effective water channels. If possible choose a flat level piece of ground. I find that I sleep ok if my legs are pointing down a slight slope, but not if they are up or across a slope, also find an area with a slight dip in the middle (or dig one out) for your hip bone i.e. contour the ground to your body shape. Similarly, if possible find a sheltered location (tree / bush cover) away from water to avoid being woke up by insects or leaves blowing through the camp. One final point don’t position your camp at the base of a slope as this forms a cold air trap and is likely to have heavy dew in the morning. Therefore, spend a little time positioning the camp accordingly, to ensure a comfortable, safe, dry night.

Natural

Figure 2.2.0 : Potentially dangerous fallen tree shelter WARNING root ball may be unstable

Figure 2.2.0.1 : Potentially dangerous cave shelter WARNING rocks may be unstable

Figure 2.2.1 : One man shelter – Thermal ‘A’ frame

Figure 2.2.1.1 : Two man shelter

Figure 2.2.1.2 : Other shelter designs, sleeping platform
    1. Image : reference - Handbok Overlevnad

The four and five man shelter uses a tepee style construction, as shown in figures 2.2.2 – 2.2.2.2, the general rule is that you need one more pole than you have people i.e. five poles for a four man shelter. These larger shelters require a lot of material and time, this example took four people the best part of a morning to complete. The main poles should be approximately twelve to sixteen feet long (tall enough to allow you to stand up easily when finished) and strong enough to support a persons weight when in position. The top of the poles are laid out three on one side and two on the other, secured together with thick Spruce roots or nylon cord using a standard tripod lashing (cordage section). Note, tie this lashing loose as when the poles are raised you may need to push them through the lashing to adjust their length, also as the poles rotate they will twist this binding tightening it. Tip, when using roots use a timber hitch to start, then wrap the root around, securing the end with a number of twists around the lashing. Keep adding roots twisting them around this binding to form a quoit, other roots can be used to form the lashings between each pole. The main frame is then lifted into position, one person lifting each pole (centre pole left free). The space in between the poles will form the sleeping bays and the door. The door poles can be placed closer together and should be positioned facing away from the prevailing wind. The angle of the main poles determines the size of the tepee and should be positions to a 60 degree angle as spruce bows will be used as thatch (to shed rain correctly the general rule is use 45 degree for deciduous and 60 degree for spruce). Note use green wood for these poles (strength), also keep in mind the desired sleeping platform length when selecting these poles i.e. better to have slightly longer poles in order to ensure the correct side angle. At this stage, whilst you still have easy access it’s a good idea to construct the beds. Each bed is made from a raise platform, keeping you off the damp ground and away from the central fire. At each main pole stack logs on top of each other to the desired height (angled to the centre). Secured these into position using four posts hammered into the ground i.e. two each end, either side of the logs secured at the top with Spruce roots or nylon cord (to help prevent them from being pushed apart). These form the platforms legs and should be at least as wide as the person using it (shoulder width). Then lay long branches between these legs to form the sleeping platforms, should be at a comfortable sitting height. Tip, ensure that these branches are trimmed of any sharp side branch stubs, also if possible choose thicker outer branches for the platform to help stop you and your bedding rolling off during the night. An alternative implementation is to use three long poles (two outer poles, one middle). Then cut a number of thinner pieces of wood (two fingers in diameters) to layer across these to form the platform. This does form a more comfortable platform and is useful when there is a shortage of long poles. Note, as you go around the tepee one platform leg is shared by each sleeping platform, when placing the long poles ensure that you alternate the placement the new poles on top and underneath the previous poles to stop the sleeping platform height from spiralling upwards. The mattress is formed from a thick layer of spruce bows. Starting at the head end lay these bows with the thick end pointing down into the platform and away from the head end, such that when you have finished all the bare ends are at the feet end of the bed. Tip, ensure these bows are not laid upside down as this will cause the pine needles to point upward into you, also make sure that the bows are spread evenly across the bed and not piled up in the middle as this can cause you to roll off during the night. Finally a layer of soft rushes can be laid across the spruce to give an additional layer of cushioning i.e. so you are not in direct contact with the pine needles. Tip, don’t use bracken for bedding as this can contain ticks.
    Next cross beams are tied to the outside of the main poles at sternum height. Note use green wood for these poles (strength), tied loosely onto the outside of the shelter as the side walls will push these onto the main uprights holding them in place. As with the two man shelter the side walls are now constructed, alternating the placement of branches (six to eight feet long) against the cross beams. Note, don’t place too many on one side at once during the early phase as this will cause the structure to collapse. When complete a layer of leaf litter is placed around the base of the tepee. This should be at least 50cm higher than the sleeping platform to form a wind break (depends on the amount of leaf litter, can be difficult to achieve). The top half of the tepee is thatched with a layer of spruce bow. When thatching start at the bottom over lapping the leaf litter layer. Push these bows into the structure with the thick end pointing toward the top and upside down i.e. such that the pine needle point upwards/outwards, as this will help shed water better. Repeat this as high as you can reach, it doesn’t matter if there is a hole at the top as this will form a chimney for the fire. When complete a fire can be lit in the middle of the tepee for heating and cooking. A pot hanger can be formed by pushing a branch through the tepee, positioned on the cross beams. When we camped in this shelter we only had woollen blankets so you did need a fire during the night to keep warm. I do confess it’s a little strange going to sleep at night will a fire less than an arms distance away from you, however, you do get used to it. Tip, do not do this will a sleeping bag as sparks could set these alight, also store a good supply of split logs, un-split logs and kindling under your sleeping platform to feed or restart the fire during the night, finally pack a pair of garden gloves as spruce needles can seriously cut up your hands (also the resins a pain to get off).
    The five man shelter uses the same tepee style construction, as shown in figure 2.2.2.1. This larger shelter requires a lot of material and time, this example took five people the best part of a day to complete. After our experiences of the four man shelter a few improvements were added. The first of these was to have a door, constructed from three poles lashed into a triangle with roots and thatched with Spruce bows (again tied in place with roots). A simple root handle was added to allow the frame to be lifted and moved. The advantage of a door is that it stops you getting wet from damp Spruce at the sides of the door as you move in and out. It also reduces drafts, retaining more heat, which in turn assists the thermal updraft from the fire to push the smoke out of the shelter i.e. preventing smoke from being blown onto the sleeping platforms. Another lesson learnt was to have a larger fire pit, a long parallel log fire to really heat up the shelter. Tip, a good piece of advice that was given to us was to get a fire into the shelter early and to keep it going all the time in order to dry out any damp bedding, floors or inner walls e.g. it takes a little while for any surface water on the soft rush to dry off.

Figure 2.2.2 : Four man shelter

Figure 2.2.2.1 : Five man shelter

Figure 2.2.2.2 : Five man shelter - sleeping platforms, side supports

Had the opportunity to make another natural shelter. Decided to make a free standing, cantilever, open front shelter. Saw the original design in a book, however, cant remember which one. The example shown in the book was based around a fallen tree. The example shown in figure 2.2.2.3 is a variation on this theme using off cuts from a clear felled stripe of forest. Two parallel logs form the back of the shelter, the wider log in front, which acts as a windbreak that you will sleep up against. The outer back log is staked into position by hammering in three stakes, preventing it from rolling out of position. In the gap between these logs a number of uprights are inserted which will form the roof of the shelter. These branches are held in place by a third log placed on top forming the cantilever weight. To complete the dome more branches and scrub was placed on each side. Note, the sides and back of the shelter are angled quite steeply in order to shed rain water, this also reduce the stress on these branches and the shelter as most of the weight is directed downwards. I found that if the roof uprights were packed closely together they would support the inwards pressure from the side branches i.e. the compressive force. However, decided to make sure, tied on a front cross bar as shown in figure 2.2.2.4. As there had been a number of trees felled in the area shingled the roof and sides with stripes of pine bark, these were then covered with leaf litter. As always starting at the bottom and working upwards, as you would tile a roof. With a front reflector and a parallel log fire lit in front the shelter was remarkably warm, not sure if it was may imagination, but I did feel that the domed shape of the shelter did reflect the heat of the fire back down onto your back. Alternatively, the shelter’s shape may be capturing the hot air vortexes from the fire, channeling these down to your back, either way felt warm front and back. During the night it did rain, the shelter kept the rain off quite well. The only thing you did need to make sure of was that you slept at the back of the shelter as you did get some ground splash from the rain falling at front of the shelter. Had known that rain could run down exposed roof uprights but hadn’t really noticed this before as I had normally ensured that they were all cut short. However, this time didn’t cover some completely, as a result in the morning did see some rain run down the inside as shown in figure 2.2.2.5, fortunately the steepness of the roof ensured that it didn’t drip on my head.

Figure 2.2.2.3 : One man shelter – Cantilever open front dome

Figure 2.2.2.4 : Additional supporting cross beam

Figure 2.2.2.5 : Rain running down the inside of exposed beams

• Campsite selection   (link)
• Shelter for Coniferous Environments – How to construct a Bush-Tipi   (link)
• How to build a natural shelter   (link)
• Natural shelters   (link)

Sleeping Bags

In the summer almost any cheap sleeping bag and roll mat (closed cell foam sleeping pad, thermal insulation from the ground) will do, doesn’t get that cold in the UK during the summer (generally true). Combine these with a bivi bag to keep off any rain (a waterproof outer bag normally made of Gortex). When sleeping in a bivi bag condensation can form, therefore, if possible open the sleeping bag and turn the bivi bag inside out to air before packing. Tip, ive been told that you shouldn’t fold a bivi bag as repeated folding in the same area can cause the waterproofing to fail, use a stuff sack instead. Roll mats can be placed either inside or outside of the bivi bag, i normally have it on the outside to protect the bivi bag from damage (roll mats are cheaper to replace), however, saying this there is an argument for having it on the inside as it prevents you rolling off it during the night. When buying a roll mat get the thicker variety, may just be psychological, but they do give a better nights sleep. The big disadvantage of a closed cell foam sleeping pad is its size (compared to an inflatable one). This makes storage in the rucksack almost impossible, especially on longer trips when space is at a premium. The roll mat can be secured on the top or bottom of the rucksack, however, this increases its width making walking through woods etc a bit more difficult. Therefore, the best position is to tie it vertically to the back of the rucksack. Tip, to secure the roll mat use two lengths of thick cord secured with a loop and peg as shown in figure 2.2.3. However, saying this I do find it better to secure the roll mat to the top of the rucksack when travelling on a train, as its easier to carry a rucksack side on down the aisle and stow in the overhead racks (still a pain). In spring and autumn a slightly thicker sleeping bag is much appreciated i.e. a 3 seasons version, but again depends on the weather. Be guided by a ‘reliable’ weather forecast and the comfort, low, temperature ratings of your sleeping bag. In cold weather choose a sleeping bag with hood and shoulder pull cords to prevent warm air escaping. Whatever sleeping bag is chosen a compression sack is a must. These greatly reduce the sleeping bags volume, making packing / storage in the rucksack a lot simpler. A compression sack can also be used as an improvised pillow, stuffed with any spare clothing or coat etc. Another, extra that can be of use is a sleeping bag liner, these simplify washing and depending on their thickness can be used to give extra warmth. Finally, the sleeping bag and spare clothes should be stored in a waterproof rucksack liner. These are simple to use, just fold the top over three times and secure the clip (remove all air first), ensuring that you have a dry night and a new set of cloths what ever the weather.

Figure 2.2.3 : roll mat, sleeping, compression, waterproof and bivi bags

Hammocks

Figure 2.2.3.1 : Mark-1 Hammock

Figure 2.2.3.2 : Mark-2 Hammock

Figure 2.2.3.3 : Mark-2 Hammock camp. NOTE: always ensure the ground below the hammock is clear

An alternative to sleeping on the ground is the hammock as shown in figure 2.2.4. This example was my first attempt based on a design in the cordage section, a little on the narrow side but functional. Combined with a tarp, these items form a very effective and flexibly system. The main advantage for me being that you no longer need to worry about finding a camp site which has level ground, free of rocks and roots. All thats required are two suitably spaced trees (living, 10 – 15ft apart), adjusting the tarp’s and hammock’s attachment points accordingly i.e. so that they are level. The other benefit of using a hammock is that it raises you off the ground, which is usually a lot more warmer than sleeping on the floor. Also it removes the danger of been woken up by flooding (well, little streams, trickles), ants, beetles, furry friends and ever present slug and snail slim attack. Tip, although you are off the ground its still a good idea to line the hammock with a roll mat for insulation. Note, cut down an old roll mat, full sized ones can be difficult to fit in. To fix the hammock find two suitably spaced trees, the rule of thumb seems to be of approximately 4 inch in diameters i.e. to be safe. Tie the hammock to the trees as you would a tarp, or using the knots shown below. Tip, ensure that the hammock is well tensioned to prevent excessive sagging. To get into the hammock, spread it open in the centre, one hand holding each side. With your back to the hammock slowly sit down into it (testing those knots and ropes) pulling the netting underneath you as you sit. Once you are sitting in it, lift your legs in one at a time and swivel your body around. When lying down pull the sides of the hammock up and around you.

Figure 2.2.4 : Securing a hammock (left), mooring hitch (right)

Figure 2.2.4.1: Falconer's knot

Falconer's knot : hold the free end between two finger, pass under main line, insert thumb above finger, twist the thumb down and finger up, pass fingers through loop formed around the thumb, remove fingers and replace with thumb, pull thumb up tighten loop, form a loop in the free end, passing it through the thumb loop, pull tight and repeat forming a chain of loops, passing the free end through the final loop and pull tight.

Figure 2.2.4.2 : Ed Speer's four wrap knot

Ed Speer's four wrap knot : wrap the free end around the main line and pull tight (the same as the Tarp taut hitch) and repeat three or four times, finally form a loop in the free end and tuck under the first loop wrapped around the tree i.e. pass it through the ‘V’ shaped gap between the main line and the tree and pull round, trapping the free end when loaded.

Alternative knots are shown in figures 2.2.5 - 2.2.5.2 again adding an additional half hitch, or turn around the tree to any of these techniques is always a good idea i.e. just to make sure the rope doesn’t slip down the trunk, or that the knots bind securely. Tie the hammock at stomach or sternum height to prevent bottoming out. Chose a good nylon rope to attach the hammock to the trees, I’ve had cheaper rope snap on me, however, this does remind you what can happen, therefore, don’t hang the hammock too high and ensure that if the worst does happen the ground beneath is clear of dangers e.g. figure 2.2.4.2 shows a fallen tree with particularly nasty side branches, in this example the tree is well behind the hammock so if a rope snapped or a knot slipped there is no danger of falling onto these spikes. Note, I’ve read that the use of nylon ropes in hammocks and tarps is not looked upon favorably now as the act of tensioning the rope can severely damage the bark of younger trees. It is recommended that a flat braid should be used, particularly with hammocks due to the larger loads involved. Alternatively if this is not an option choose a more mature tree with thicker bark and use a knot with multiple turns to spread the surface load. Another possible problem that can occur when camping out under a tarp is that rain water can run done the rope into the hammock. To prevent this, a drip line can be formed by tying the free end of the rope above the metal ring using a simple over hand knot (allowing the rope to loop downwards). Now if rain water was to run down the rope, this knot will deflect this water down this spare rope. I found this can be a particular problem for the hammock as its main support ropes slopes down more steeply than the tarp’s i.e. as the tarp is level water doesn’t run along it as fast. Note, the type of tree and where you attach your rope also affects the amount of water that runs down the rope e.g. I found that Beech trees tend to have more water running down their trunks than Pine trees, also large side branches typically have less water running down them than the main trunk.

Figure 2.2.5 : Securing rope to end rings

Figure 2.2.5.1 : Hammock spacer bars

Figure 2.2.5.2 : Paracord reinforced edge

Another problem I found when using a hammock is that the large loads on the ropes cause the knots to bind very tightly, making even quick release knots difficult to untie. Note, I found that the Evenk slippery figure of eight hitch can be difficult to get loose, putting a couple of extra turns around the trees helps reduce the pressure on the knot, but at the cost of making it more difficult to tighten the noose up around the tree. This problem is particularly difficult when attaching the ropes to the hammock rings. To overcome this I found that a variation on the Ed Speer's four wrap knot works well, as shown in figure 2.2.6. The friction in the extra layers of wrapping helps reduce the tension on the final two half hitches making the knot hold well, but very easy to untie. Note, a slippery half hitch could also be used instead of the two half hitches shown here. After using the mark-2 hammock a few times I found it quite uncomfortable i.e. the sausage affect, felt like you were being wrapped up, couldn’t lie flat in the hammock. To overcome this problem I’ve now fitted a top and bottom spacer bar as shown in figure 2.2.6.1. These bars are made from 0.5" square Pine, the top bar is 29" long and the bottom bar is 24" long. Drilled out a hole and counter sunk each side 1" from the end of each bar. Then using a knife a slot is cut into which the sides of the hammock can be inserted. Note, the holes are drilled through the grain to prevent splitting i.e. at 90 degrees to the grain. One problem I found with using spacer bars is that they put a lot of strain on the cords near the end of the bars. This was discovered at the cost of two snapped strings. To help minimize this problem I doubled up the cord in these areas i.e. tie on overlapping cord a row above and below the bar attachment point for five meshes in. However, the problem is that even if you use multiple cords to spread the load, this is not always spread evenly i.e. one cord takes more stain than the others causing it to snap first, which can then lead to multiple failures. From my experience you didn’t get an avalanche effect, when one string snapped the load within the hammock readjusted itself and it didn’t lead to total failure. The good thing about a string hammock is that its easy to repair all you need is more string. Using spacer bars the hammock is now a lot more comfortable, quite relaxing to lay in. However, I do confess where possible I still prefer a piece of flat ground due to my dodgy back. Having used the hammock on a number of occasions now, couldn’t shake the thought that more strings were just about to snap. Therefore, decided to reinforce the edge with a length of paracord, as shown in figure 2.2.5.2. However, the problem now faced was how to ensure that a person’s weight was evenly distributed between the hammock’s netting and the new side cords i.e. didn’t want to shift the problem to an overloaded paracord. To try and achieve this goal the paracord was only tied to the top ring, being threaded through the top edge of the side meshes and around the bottom ring i.e. when loaded the side cords will be pulled level through the bottom ring, balancing their lengths and load. Tried to judge the paracord length such that the load was shared between this cord and the net. The spacer bars now hook onto the paracord. At these four contact points have whipped a binding either side of the bar to form a small loop, this makes locating the spacer bars in the correct position a lot easier. To date no more snapped strings.