Cordage (string, cord, rope) is a resource taken for granted today. However, to produce cordage in the field from natural fibres can take a significant amount of time (especially long lengths of thin strong cord). There are two main methods of producing a cord: twisting and plaiting. Normally twisting is used to produce an initial cord, which can be plaited or twisted into a larger diameter cord or rope. A number of different plants or inner bark fibres can be used e.g. nettle and inner Willow bark. The cordage produced from these fibres are not as strong as there commercial versions so a larger diameter cord will be required. To prevent cracking and breakage, care should be taken when tying a lashing or a knot, not to bend the cord too sharply. One solution is to moisten the cord, increasing its flexibility. The disadvantage of this technique is that water as well as softening the cord also causes the fibres to swell increasing its diameter, so that when the cord dries, tension in lashing or knot will be reduced. This is not a big disadvantage for figure eight or bowline knots as when loaded they will re-tighten.
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Figure 4.2.0 : Net making tools (net needles and mesh sticks)
Figure 4.2.0.1 : Recessed net needle (bottom), Split Bamboo net needle (top)
When making a net the mesh size must be chosen to suit the application e.g. storage, fishing or trapping. In general, chose a mesh size half the size of the object being contained. When making a net a significant amount of cord is required, more than you would think. Tip, a larger mesh size is easier to tie, requires less knots and cord, therefore, quicker to make. Note, the width of the loaded needle determines the minimum mesh size, therefore, for small mesh sizes (around 1 cm) a net needle shown in the bottom frame of figure 4.2.0 will be needed. This type of long and thin needle, maximises the amount of cord that can be loaded whilst minimising its width. Net needles vary in length from about 15cm (general purpose work, repairing etc) to +30cm (can be loaded with a lot of cord for making large nets etc). To make a square net as shown in figure 4.2.1 (I’m left handed so reverse cord position / hands for right handed), you require a net needle and mesh stick, their construction is described in the section on cutting tools. First, load the net needle (shuttle) with cord and tie the free end to a fixed point e.g. a tent peg, your foot. To load the shuttle, hold the cord’s free end in the middle of the shuttle and loop it up and around the central (internal) pin, pull the cord down and around the base, rotating the shuttle over, repeat the process on the other side. When loading keep the cord tight and evenly spread across the shuttle, repeat this process until full. Next tie a figure eight knot to form a loop (same size as mesh stick), then pass the net needle around the mesh stick and up through the loop, pulling it taught such that the loop rests on the top of the mesh stick. Tip, a common mistake is to pass the cord around the back of the mess stick first (rather than over the front), this prevents the loop from being pulled taught. Then cast a loop over the first loop, feed the needle under the first loop and up through the new loop. Pull the knot formed tight, ensuring that the knot does not form below the ‘V’ of the first loop. Tip, use the back finger to keep the loop in position and your thumb to guide the knot as it forms, also ensure that when you pull the loop back to the mesh stick, the ‘V’ formed has equal length sides. Tip, if the loop is held tight against the mesh stick the knot can be pulled through your thumb and finger un-sighted and will form correctly. Note, for the first cast of each row, tie around all three cords to form the re-enforce sides (although I have seen people cast the knot just over the mesh loop). When a row has been finished tie an additional loop through the last loop to increase the number of meshes in each row. Repeat, until the required number of meshes in a row have been formed i.e. the top triangle of the square. To form the bottom triangle, the number of meshes in a row must be reduced. This is achieved by instead of adding an additional loop at the end of each row, removing one. Pass the needle through the last two meshes and tie together, reducing the row length by one each time. For the first reduction row, the row needs to be reduced by two meshes, therefore tie in both ends i.e. the first two and last two loops). There are a number of methods of joining these meshes together :
I find the first method works fine, it doesn’t hurt to add an addition loop, but this will reduce the size of that mesh a little, which can skew the net a bit. A double knot can also be used when a knot is misformed i.e. forms below the ‘V’, casting the second knot secures the mesh preventing it from slipping. One problem I find when knitting a wide net is that as the you get to the end of a row it can become difficult to maintain mesh size i.e. they increase in size, making it difficult to pull the loop to the mesh stick. To help reduce this problem unload the mesh stick, then loop the last mesh around the mesh stick, retention and continue.
Figure 4.2.1 : Square netting
Figure 4.2.1.1 : Alternative net making technique, finished nets
1. Top left fame : reference - http://www.bertaut.com/netmaking.html
2. Bottom frame : reference - http://www.wedcraft.com/netting.html
Figure 4.2.1.2 : Tube netting
Figure 4.2.1.3 : Methods of doubling row mesh
1. Image : reference - http://www.wedcraft.com/netting.html
An alternative to square netting is to make a flat net, this can be made square, rectangular, or tied into a tube, as shown in figure 4.2.1.2. Start by looping the cord around the mesh stick twice and tie off with an overhand knot (forming a double sized loop). Then form a mesh chain by repeatedly casting a new loop on the mesh stick, as shown in the top left panel of figure 4.2.1.1. An easier method of casting on is shown in the bottom panel of figure 4.2.1.1, has a small disadvantage that the initial row can slip, but this is not usually a problem. Thread this chain through a string and tie to a fixed point as usual. Then knit the required number of rows to produce the square or rectangle i.e. the initial row determines the size of one of the axis. To form triangular shapes the number of meshes in a row can be increased by adding an additional loop at the end of the row or within the row as shown in figure 4.2.1.3. Note, when forming the initial chain form n+1 loops to produce the required n rows. When the required number of rows have been formed the net can be made into a tube by tying the two edges together (see netting 2 below). This is simplified using a spacing stick, allowing each row loop to be held in the correct position. Below are some useful documents on net making I’ve found on the web(due to possible copyright conflicts these are only accessible from the local machine) :
A common alterative to sleeping on the ground when using a tarp is the hammock i.e. you already have two suitably spaced trees to suspend it from. There are a number of different methods of making a hammock, from canvas sheeting to natural plant fibres, with netting being one of the most common. The example below is taken from the web by Rita Bartholomew. This design uses a 2" mesh stick and two 2" (external diameter) hammock rings, welded galvanised steel loops.
I’ve based my first hammock on this pattern, the key feature in this design is shown in figure 4.2.2. Initially the net is cast onto one of the steel rings, then instead of expanding the net at the end of a row, an additional loop is cast in the middle of the row. An additional two loops are then added in the previous and next row mesh positions in each subsequent row (the red dots in figure 4.2.2) until the penultimate mesh within a row is reached. When the desired width is reached (determined by the number of meshes initially cast on), rows are continued to be added until the hammock is long enough for the person using it. The row size is then reduced in size, mirroring the other end of the hammock i.e. reducing the row meshes by two for each row (joining two messes together). This process starts by joining the second / third meshes together and the penultimate third / second to last meshes together, in the first reduction row. The selected mesh pairs are then moved in by one for subsequent rows, moving the joined mesh pairs inwards towards the centre of the hammock (mirroring the other end). The hammock in figure 4.2.2 is made from two reels of parcel cord, twisted cotton fibres, holds a knot well and cheap to experiment with (only £1.50 a reel). I would of liked to of used a nylon cord of the same diameter i.e. stronger and does not rot, however, the nylon cords I’ve tired did not hold a knot well i.e. after a couple of days the knots begun to slip. My initial impressions of the cotton cord was that it was too thin, however, as the weight is spread over a number of cords its surprisingly strong (took the weight of two people without a problem). Note, I’ve got no idea what the maximum load for this hammock is, but as with any hammock get in slowly and use with caution. After completing my first attempt, I found the basic design worked well, however, it wasn’t wide enough for me (extending the main body would of helped a bit). For the next hammock I increased the number of meshes in the starting row to 17 and the mesh size to 2.25". Row 2 cast on a single row forming 16 meshes. Row 3 add a double loop on the 8th knot, on next rows add an additional loop on the preceding and following mesh positions up to the 17th row. This produces a hammock width of 43 meshes, double the previous. The main body of the hammock is extended for 20 rows, then taken in as before, back to a 17 mesh row, the last row formed around the second steel ring. The Mark-2 hammock’s dimensions look better (two nights work, costing approx £8.50 to make), but still not sure its quite right. When tested the main body’s width is now fine, more than enough to wrap around your hips. However, it feels a little small across the shoulders. When pilled tight, the hammocks length is now approximately 9’, perhaps a little long for using under a tarp (8’). This problem is reduced as when loaded the hammock bows down and out, pulling it in, moving the ends under the tarp. Spacing bars may be an useful addition i.e. wooden bars pinned across the top and bottom, holding the hammock apart (figure 4.2.3.1), this would also reduce its length. As the hammock can not be increased in length an improvement for the Mark-3 hammock would be to make it non-symmetrical i.e. making the top end wider, perhaps increasing the top four meshes per row.
Figure 4.2.2 : Expanding hammock width (left), Mark-1 hammock (right)
The main problem of using cotton cordage is it soaks up a lot of water when wet. To waterproof the cordage, natural materials could be used, however, for simplicity I used green external gloss paint, which seems to have done the job ok (time will tell). Tip, before painting, setup and sit in the hammock to tension the netting before waterproofing i.e. to remove any slack within the cord or knots. The best technique for painting I’ve found so far was to use your hands, rubbing the paint into cord with your fingers and palms. Tip, do this on a dry day with a good wind as it takes a while to dry i.e. soaks up quite a bit of paint, also to get the paint off your hands mix up a paste of sand, washing up liquid and white spirits.
Figure 4.2.3 : Mark-2 hammock
Figure 4.2.3.1 : Top and bottom separating bars
1. Image : reference - http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/1492/images
More information on Hammocks in Shelter section
Link to Shelter sectionAnother use for netting is to make stuff sacks / net bags, to contain, organise equipment e.g. clothes etc. A net bag starts with a foundation ring as shown in figure 4.2.4, a loop of nylon cord onto which the first row of loops are tied. These loops are formed around the mesh stick and locked in place using a series of clove hitches. Note, the tail of the first clove hitch needs to be about 1m long as it will be used to join each mesh row into a ring, the number of loops formed determines the bags width. When the required number of meshes minus one have been formed the head and tail cords are tied together using a reef knot, re-enforced by tying an overhand knot in the nylon cord. The final mesh is then formed by joining the head and tail cords together using an overhand knot. In this example the foundation ring is formed from ten loops. The next row of meshes is tied onto the first row using a basic sheet bend, again the final mesh is formed by tying the head and tail cords together using an overhand knot. This is repeated until bag reaches the required depth. The final row is re-enforced by forming a double row by knotting the cord back round the final row. Finally a nylon draw string is feed round the top row.
Figure 4.2.4 : Net bag
Figure 4.2.4.1 : Rectangular net
Figure 4.2.4.2 : Net needles
To make a rectangular net as shown in figure 4.2.4.1 start by knitting a square net until the desired width is reached, as shown in frame 1. At the start of the next row take in the first two meshes i.e. join the initial loop and the first true mesh to form a corner, then continue as normal finishing the row by adding an additional loop as normal, as shown in frame 2. The long edge is the top of the net, the short edge is the bottom of the net. Continue knitting the net as normal, at the end of a row add an additional loop if its the top edge and join the last two meshes together if it’s the bottom edge, as shown in frames 3 - 5. When the desired length has been reached instead of adding an additional loop on the top edge, join the last two meshes together to form the top corner, as shown in frame 6. To form the bottom corner, take in / join the last two meshes at the end of each row as shown in frames 7 – 8. Below are some useful documents on netting and net bags I’ve found on the web(due to possible copyright conflicts these are only accessible from the local machine) :
Splicing is an elegant means of joining or forming loops in the end of three twist rope. The join is formed by tucking the individual stands under and over each other so that when the rope is placed under stain these strands bite into each other holding the join in position. An example of how to form a loop or eye is shown in figure 4.2.5. First untwist a length of rope. Tip, to stop the rope untwisting further than required tie off with a piece of cotton. When a loop is formed, two of the strands naturally twist away from the main rope (the overs) and one towards (the under). Tuck the middle “over” strand into the main rope. Next tuck the “under” strand, into the rope above the first strand, where the first strand came out. Turn the splice over and tuck the second “over” strand into the rope where the “under” strand came out. When these strands are pressed down they should come out equally spaced around the rope. Note, this is the hardest part to get correct, worth checking, otherwise you will have to unpick the weaving later. Each of these strands is then tucked in and out of the main rope strands to form the splice. Starting with the first strand, lift it over the next main rope strand and under the following, rotate the rope to the next free strand and repeat. Tip, as you go around the rope, the strands you are weaving into the main rope should always be placed above the next free strand. When complete, the splice has a neat, symmetrical shape. Finally the loose ends can be whipped in place.
Figure 4.2.5 : Eye splice
To join two pieces of rope together a short splice can be used, as shown in figure 4.2.6. The term short refers to the fact that the splice will increase the rope’s diameter at this point. The alternative is a long splice that maintains a constant diameter (not sure how to do this one). Tie off the ends with a short length of cotton and untwist the strands to this point. Then push the two ends together, such that each strand from one end of the rope is placed between two strands from the other end of the rope, and that no two strands are placed between the same pair i.e. the strands are equally space around the rope. Tip, ensure these ends are held firmly together whilst the splice is being formed to prevent slack. The two half splices are made sequentially. Starting with one end of the rope, select a strand and place it over the strand from the other end of the rope to its left, then under the next following strand. Rotate the rope to the next free strand and repeat. Tip, when all three strands have been tucked in pull them back gently to remove any slack in the splice. When this half of the splice is complete turn the rope around and repeat for the other end of the rope. Tip, at this point the cotton used to tie off the rope can be removed (or can be left). Again, whip the loose end to finish.
Figure 4.2.6 : Short splice
Below are some useful documents on splicing rope I’ve found on the web(due to possible copyright conflicts these are only accessible from the local machine) :Glue is the obvious complement to cordage when trying to secure two objects together e.g. attaching a flint arrow head to its shaft. Reading around there seems to be two main methods of making glue from plants, ones based on pine resin or ones based on birch tar. Pine resin based glues are the "easiest" to produce as it can be collected quickly and easily (in a suitable wood/forest). Resin forms on damaged areas i.e. broken branches or where the bark has been striped away and can be easily scraped off with a knife into a bowl or your hand. Tip, as resin dries on the tree it becomes covered with dirt / old pieces of bark etc, camouflaging it, only revealed when scraped with the knife (white / yellow in colour). If possible use an old knife as scrapping doesn’t do the blade’s edge any good. Some examples of where pine resin can be found on the tree are shown in figure 4.2.7. The first two examples are easily spotted as there is a good contrast between the white/yellow resin and the bark. The last example can be identified by its "putty" like shape and location, formed as the resin dried around the exposed edge of the damaged bark. There are a number of different techniques for separating the resin from the bark / debris, the normal suggestion is to place a piece of the bark / resin mixture on a flat stone and heat it by a fire, when melted unwanted pieces of bark can be pushed to the side with a small stick. Tried this technique using an old tin can as shown in figure 4.2.7.1. Heated over a candle until the pine resin was bubbling. Then using a teaspoon push the bark / resin mixture to one side, tilting the can allowing the liquid resin to flow to the opposite side (continuously heated). This technique worked, but was a bit difficult to stop some pieces of bark falling back in. The second method is to place the bark / resin mixture in a cloth bag and boil in water. When melted the resin floats to the surface and can be spooned off. This technique worked, but was slow, maybe due to the cloth having a close weave. I guess this would be a good method if you could leave the pot boiling all day as it requires very little supervision or effort. This is a significant bonus as heating pine resin produces strong fumes. Another method is to make a metal funnel, wide at the top, narrowing to a small hole. The bark / resin mixture is placed at the top and heated. As the mixture flows down the funnel pieces of bark are trapped, allowing the resin to drip out of the bottom. The final method is the easiest to do, the bark / resin mixture is ground into a powder using an improvised pestle and mortar (this assumes the pine resin is hard or has been heated and cooled into a lump). When powder starts to be produced, tap the can on the ground, as the can is tapped the larger pieces rise to the top and can be removed leaving fine pine resin powder. The larger pieces can either discarded e.g. pieces of bark or ground into a powder later. This technique works well as pine resin is quite brittle. I guess the main disadvantage of this method is that pieces of bark will also be ground up, I don’t think this will be a significant disadvantage as bulking material is added later anyway.
Figure 4.2.7 : Sources of pine resin
Figure 4.2.7.1 : Making pine resin glue
When using the heat based methods the resulting pine resin is collected when still warm and rolled into a ball for storage. When needed it can be hammered into a powder to allow it to be more easily measured. To strength the resin it can be mixed with ground charcoal or wood ash, some recipes also recommend mixing in beeswax. The ratio of resin to other ingredients varies some examples I’ve found on the web are given below:
Haven’t tried all of these recipes, a two to one mix of pine resin to wood ash seems to work well, the resulting paste is a lot harder and less brittle than pure pine resin. This type of glue is a thermo-set glue which needs to be re-heated to be used. The objects being glued will also need to be warmed so that the glue can be easily spread on each surface, allowing a good bond to be formed when the two surfaces are pushed together. It can be difficult to use this type of glue to glue a large area, as the glue soon cools and hardens, preventing the two surfaces bonding correctly. It is a lot easier to use it in small areas that can be warmed above a fire /flame to allow adjustment and larger blobs to be molded into shape using your fingers as it cools. Tip, lick / dampen your fingers a little to help stop them sticking to the glue.
Figure 4.2.8 : Taping Pine trees for resin
Read of an alternative method of collecting resin, instead of chipping off old dried chunks from damaged areas you can tap the tree as shown in figure 4.2.8. Here you cut down through the outer and inner bark layers into to the sap wood. The tree will then try to ‘heal’ this damaged area by producing a layer of resin to seal the wound. Any surplus resin can be directed and collected under the power of gravity into a container secured to the side of the trunk. In this case an old tin can. Tried two different techniques, the first shown in the top frame of figure 4.2.8 was to cut a ‘V’ shape using an axe, forming two recessed channels that direct any resin formed on the scared area into the container below. The second shown in the bottom frame of figure 4.2.8 was to simply slice off the top area of bark using a knife i.e. no channels are cut into the wood. Left these taps for three weeks. When I went back found that the tin cans had collected a lot of rain water, but at the bottom there was a small pool of resin. Note, the containers need to be securely tightly to the trunk with good thickness of cord to take this weight (water), also using a windlass pulls the can in tight to the trunk ensuring that the front lip is flat to the bark to make sure that the resin flows into the can. In this instance the ‘V’ channel tap produced about twice as much resin compared to the simple slice approach, approximately the size of a small golf ball. However, the resin produced is lot different to that previously used, very runny and sticky having the consistency of molten wax / syrup. After about a week or so this thickened up, again looking like a piece of solidified candle wax, but a lot harder. These examples of tapping may not be typical, but I found it a lot quicker just to chip off old chucks of resin from a number of different trees instead of tapping, but maybe if you keep cleaning the channels the trees may keep on producing a steady supply of resin? Below are some useful documents on natural glues I’ve found on the web(due to possible copyright conflicts these are only accessible from the local machine) :
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